1. What is the bolt pattern of the wheels on my car?
5 lug X 4.5"
The pattern on your Fury is the same as any other Mopar passenger car or Dodge TWO WHEEL DRIVE 1/2T pickup except for some A bodies--some Barracuda's , Valient or Darts used the smaller pattern. Of course the newer front wheel drive stuff is different. Your pattern is also the same as common Ford passenger cars. I believe some Imperials for some years used a larger pattern. I believe this is also the same as AMC, my '86 Ford Ranger, and Toyota 2 WD pickups

2. Is it considered B or C body?
I believe this is a C body.

3. What transmissions came stock in these cars behind either a 440 or 318?
First, be aware that big block engine bell patterns are different that small block. So, even if you have the larger, heavier transmission behind an existing small block, you can't use that same trans behind a big block.
Generally, all big blocks came with an A727, the heavier auto, and 318's --in some years--came with either the A904 or the A727. Again, if you have an A727 and a 318, it will be a SMALL BLOCK casting, and cannot be adapted or mounted to a big block engine.
Additionally, if you want more power, something else to consider might be a 360. However, the pan is special to a 360 because the rear main is larger than a 318-340, and the 360 is externally balanced. I don't know--with an auto--if this is accomplished by the flex plate or (probably) the converter.

4. Will those transmission bolt to a late model 5.9?
I'm not familiar with the late stuff. Probably not. If I was thinking of installing a modern engine, I'd use the matching trans, for several reasons, not the least of which is parts availability.

5. You left out the most important question:
How do I deal with my wife? Don't brush her off lightly. Divorces, and worse, have been caused by hubbies hobbies. Maybe talk her into a tasteful car show. One with something besides roadsters and blowers, you know, "street cars." See if she can appreciate just how cool some of these old rigs are.
Once, I ran into an old geezer, must've been nearing '70, driving a 7 second 57 Chev. I said something about it to him, and he said, "I've had this car for xx years. My wife finally said either the car goes or I go. I've still got the car."

 

The orginal definition of "musclecar" was applied to the factory hot rods--GTO's, GTX, Roadrunners, Chevelle's with hi perf. options, Mustangs, etc.

I don't think there were any Furies that could be "called" that, although back in those days, you could "order" just about anything, expecially if you "knew" someone.

So far as overhaul and parts prices, there's not a nickles worth of difference between a 383 and a 440, so if both are complete and in about the same mechanical shape, I'd go for the 440. If the 440 has a lot of wear, or severe damage, like bent or really bad valves, or a badly damaged crank, you might look back to the 383.

If you just want a cruiser, I'd REALLY look hard at a 318. These can put out respectable "cruise" power, and gasoline is NEVER going to go down.